Strategy and Performance Management at DSM Essay

Strategy and Performance Management at DSM - Essay Example The final KSF is important from the point of view of the merchant players. Low cost and security from sales is essential for them (Cai, et al, 2009). The KSFs can be linked with each other, if some of the steps of performance management are implemented within the system of DSM. The process of performance management consists of five steps. The steps consists of planning, developing, monitoring, rating and finally development planning. Among the various steps, planning, developing and rating is important from the perspective of DSM. This is because, all the selected steps are essential to enhance the KSFs and helps in ensuring integration within the factors (Armstrong & Baron, 2000). The suggested process consists of planning, developing and rating. Analyzing the processes would justify the rationale behind the suggestions. The three suggested steps are also linked with each other. The adoption of these steps within the system would help DSM to amalgamate the KSFs effectively. Planning is essential in an organization as it is the main factor that helps in properly allocating the resources of a company. Planning ensures that the company capitalizes on the opportunities available to it and the process is done in a cost effective way. Proper planning helps to meet the requirements of the customers. The demands of the customers can be fulfilled if proper production plans are designed. Efficient distribution of sales will be ensured if planning is done in the process of identifying potential target customers (Cai, et al, 2009). The second step involves activities that are related to efficient development of ideas and techniques. This step is connected to the first st ep. If proper planning is not done, the development process will also not be productive. Development is also an integral step in the process of performance management. Innovative techniques of production have to be developed in order to gain comparative advantage in the

Use of Technology to curb crimes in sri Lanka

Use of Technology to curb crimes in sri Lanka INTRODUCTION Crime rates Sri Lanka is continued to grow like a social melanoma since 1944. New methods are required in order to take decisions regarding a crime. In such an occasion, the court of law takes assistance of criminology. Main components of the criminology are zoology, chemistry, physics, computer science, statistics, and mathematics. The capital punishment is not reopened with human rights point of view. Unfortunately nowadays we observe that the crimes are so common occurrence in our country. Criminals search for numerous ways in order to commit crimes with the use of advance of the technology. All crime searching mechanisms of our country should be modified with the modern high technology methods in order to curb crimes. Not only the policies of a country, but also techniques which we use to prevent crimes contribute to the increase of the crime rates. 2 Being a democratic country, we do not practice capital punishment regarding offenders. The rate of crimes could be reduced certain extent utilizing the new technology. More over poverty contributes to increase the crime rate of our country. 3. Most of crimes are not reported or not recorded, not followed through, or not able to be proved.   Every crime violates the law, while every violation of the law does not count as a crime. As an example:  breaches of contact  are ranked as offence under the civil law, but it is not considered as a crime. AIM 4. The aim of this paper is to examine the use of technology to curb crimes and to maintain the law and order in Sri Lanka. HISTORY 5. The idea of crime came from legendary or mythology. Some religious communities consider crime as a sin. Good religious preachings had pointed out the consequences of committing crimes in historical books. Searching criminals and punishing them is a judiciary process in order to minimize the crime rate of a country or a society. Further the Department of Police has responsibility to submit offenders to the courts. The father of the criminology is considered as professor Edmond Lokard. He made a famous saying that every touch makes substances. 6. Sri Lanka practiced a court system for criminals in the history called Raja Sabha and it was an evidence based methodology which had been used to identify the criminals. Presently Sri Lanka use modern technology to detect crimes to a certain extent.    REASONS FOR CRIMES 7. Basically crimes in our country are taken place because of following reasons. Some of these reasons could be controlled with using modern technology for a certain extent. Those reasons are as follows: a. Poverty of the country. b. Morale values. c. Education of the citizens. d. Religious motivation. e. Social problems. f. Public perception. g. Gun culture. h. Drugs usage/drugs trafficking/illicit drugs. i. Degrading minorities. PRESENT PROCEDURE ON CRIMES IN SRI LANKA 8. Crime can be classified into categories as follows: a. Crimes against property. b. Crimes against Public order. c. Crimes in form of violent. 9. Mainly police handle crimes. When there is requirement of using technology, the police make use the police officers who are well trained on criminal investigation. these officers are called Scene of Crime Officers (SOCO). Once after recover any crime, the police produced relevant suspect or suspects in front of the courts. If not, the police carry out investigation on the order of the court. 10. Magistrates court or a High Court is having primary jurisdiction in the cases of crimes. The respective legal domains are provided by the Code of Criminal Procedure. REQUIREMENT OF TECHNOLOGY IN CRIMES DETECTION 11. Ordinary people commit crimes normally. Legal personals and police personal who are trained in handling crimes may also commit crimes. Then the detection of crimes is difficult. 12. Presently the advance technologies are used for crimes. Therefore, detection of crimes is not easy task like the ancient era. 13. Sri Lanka being a third world country the techniques used for crime prevention is in an infant age. Sri Lankan Crime statistics shows that most of crimes are pending on investigation giving us some idea about the investigation system of our country. Most of occasions technological failure paved way for the pending investigations. As examples following statistics relevant to the grave crimes indicate that we are to go for new technology: Ser no Year Total no of grave crimes Pending on investigation 1. 2010 27024 15959 2. 2009 57182 28448 3. 2008 60693 29800 4. 2007 56215 27009 5. 2006 60932 28650 (Source: Web Site Department of Police, Sri Lanka) 14. Since we faced 30 years war in recent past, most of people are trained on handling weapons. Some weapons may be remained in underground. There may be so many explosives and weapons which have not been detected by security forces. Though it is not imminent but some time later on, there is a tendency to increase crimes in account of these hidden items. .15. There were instances where some people tried to print money with common use of computer technology. With the available internet facilities, some people try to get knowledge for crimes. Some people may maintain contacts with foreign terrorists groups and criminals using intent facilities and other public communication systems. 16. General use of mobile phone also may be contributed for organized crimes. It is provided connectivity among criminals or criminal organizations. With commercial aim any one is permitted to get mobile connection without revealing so many personal particulars. Some body may use this easiness of mobile connectivity to achieve criminal objectives. Intelligence sources are bound with the existing law to do their operation freely. But when we are using modern technology to reveal these it is very much speed as well as efficient and effective. 17. .During the last three decades of war in Sri Lanka, when military forces achieved some gains in north, the consequences were in Colombo. Colombo is the economic hub of Sri Lanka. Any terrorists or any criminal can make grave losses to the economy of Sri Lanka if he or she targets on economic vulnerable places in Colombo. Some time it was revealed that LTTE carders used national identity card with a Muslim name. With using those identity cards they managed to come to Colombo. 18. Banks and other financial institution in our country give chance for anyone to open bank account in their banks. Minimum attention is given to the circulation of money in the account. Criminals can operate somewhere but handler of the criminals may be in somewhere. Even in the Minister Jeyaraj Fernandopulles case: it was revealed that the criminal had another identity card with a Tamil name which he had use to open a bank account to facilitate his expenses. 19. Our security forces ways of searching people and questioning people are not yet improved. It requires modification with new technology. Old searching methods of people are not suit for the present requirements. As an example: the Minister Jeyaraj Fernandopulles case, the police arrested a Tamil girl for questioning about the handler and the suicide bomber and she committed suicide by swallowing a cyanide capsule whilst in custody. In this instance, police found that the capsule had been hidden inside her vagina to avoid detection. 20. There were some abnormal cases where father raped his daughter or grandfather raped her innocent granddaughter. Since society is so much cruel there should be effective way to identify those offenders removing there voluble curtain like father or grandfather. TECHNOLOGY IN PRESENT FOR DETECTION OF CRIMES 21. Present technology to detect crimes can be considered as a guide for Sri Lanka crime prevention technology. During last humanitarian war period, the Terrorist Investigation Division (TID) and the CID of the Sri Lanka Police, were able to detect many sophisticated communication equipment of the LTTE and have arrested many LTTE cadres operating in Colombo with using modern technology. This paved the way for Colombo to be relatively free of incidents. 22. Any criminal from center part of the country may rape an innocent girl in south or north. He may escape without giving any evidence. But since DNA technology is used it is easy to find the suspect. But there is a problem with the cost of DNA research. 23. To judge the time of a murder, researches are conducted on skulk of a human body or else any other parts. It is sometimes help to identify criminals. 24. As technology continues to develop, the accuracy of information is increased. In August 2000 the accuracy of GPS signals was within 2 meters. We can use this technology for crime prevention. 25. Our preventive measures involve an increase in standard domestic intelligence. Understanding of terrorist functions increases the ability to prevent terror attacks effectively. 26. If suspect persons any cell of body excluding blood is remained as evidence, genetic code is to be tested. It may be his strait of hair, any small cell of the body. In case of a rape, criminals can be detected with following: a. Trees and soil of the place where the rape was taken place. b. Some patches taken place when trying to escape. c. Any strings of hair of the offender, d. Sperm of the offender. e. Suspected persons cloths. f. Any small injuries during the rape. 27. Observation of the Place of Crime. Following new technology are used in a place of crime. a. Use camera for surveillance. b. Storing data with a computer. c. Photographing using sensible camera. d. Storing of evidence with using computer. 28. Touching Evidence. Touching evidence is very much important in criminology. Basic consideration is paved for substance of physical components. Fingerprints are very much important evidence. New technology can be used for identifying fingerprints, recording fingerprints, scanning the small evidence materials, deciding time of a crime, where normal eye cannot identify the small substance. Touching evidence are used for following fields of crimes: a. Vehicle accident b. smuggling 29. Weapons and Explosives Weapons and explosives are used for crimes. There are so many types of explosives which are in used. Explosives can be a one chemical or compound. It may be a solid or liquid. Now explosives detectors are used. Since the new mine detectors are most effective they can be used for detection purposes. PROBLEMS 30. With considering nature of the crimes, tendency of the criminals, there is a higher requirement to use the modern technology. Following problems are identified in order to use the technology in reducing crimes and maintaining law and order of the country. Those difficulties are as follows: a. Since a considerable time Sri Lankan police service has using communications equipments to communicate with each police station. But when we consider the security, speed, efficiency it is too behind with the requirements. b. There is a vaccum of capable police personals to be used in crime detection purposes and technology handling. c. Morden fire arms are used by criminals d. In competitive world explosives are introduced with so many forms. e. Research on DNA is very much expensive. But it will help to identify criminals. Lack of researchers to do DNA tests is another problem. f. there is a lack of laboratory facilities with modern technology to detect crimes. g. Preventing crime is easy rather than searching after committed a crime and it is saving voluble properties in the form of man power or material. h. Drugs trafficking is a major issue. i. There are some places where crimes are repeating. Police dominance of the area is not enough to control the crimes. Sometimes there is a specific time which crimes are repeating. j. As per the common practice of law of our country, which trial a case in a court not suitable for some cases. As an example a real criminal may be escape from the punishment if a talent lawyer talks on behalf of him. He has to spend a great deal of money to get advices and service of the lawyer. And same manner an innocent man may be convicted for a crime if he is not taking assistance from a good layer. k. Our countrys judiciary system is functioning well. But in criminal cases pending on trial cases are very much high since the criminal cases are to be proved beyond the reasonable doubt. It requires some modification. In modern technology computers can be feed with intelligence and our penal code as well as other laws which help to take the decisions. Then the judgment could be taken without delay. l. Normal tendency of an offender is to do the offence habitually. When we consider about the data of a local police station this is a common tendency. Normally inquiries are recorded in a book. For minor offences are neglected for first or second times. Then someone may compel to do the crimes. Because the police have to search in so many books some offenders past behavior may be hidden. If a police station got a data source which can available immediately police can go for a study of any offenders history. As a result even a minor offences are repeated, the offender is to be punished to avoid crimes. When we consider about few criminals it is common truth that they have initially done small offences and later on crimes. m. Vehicles are being used by so many types of people. Criminals are also using vehicles. Criminals may commit a crime in a far away distance, and come back in few minutes using vehicles. Then tracking the criminals using search dogs is much difficult. n. Emergency telephone numbers which were published by the Department of Police are commonly use by the general public. That will help Police personals to locate the place of crimes and take actions without delay. For example 119 and 118 numbers are commonly used. But most of times these numbers are engaged with some conversations. o. Sudden provocations are making so many crimes in our country. When we consider about crimes history of our country it is so much clear. We can use modern technology to enhance the patient ability of such selected group of people with using computer games. p. Punishment may be helped to reduce crimes to some extent. But if we are going for a major reduction of the crimes in Sri Lanka following crimes generating areas are to be addressed giving reasonable solutions with using modern technology. q. In some occasions fingerprints are being used to identify the criminals. The fingerprint system had been used by prehistoric people. 31. There are numbers of poisons which are used in Sri Lanka for making crimes in the form of murder, committing suicide, homicide, culpable homicides. There is a new tendency in Sri Lanka for abortions with using illicit means. When in such a case researches on the victims body is to be carried out. New technology is used for those researchers. There is a scarcity of laboratory facilities with modern technology for these purposes. SUMMERY 32. Considerable number of reason is contributing to increase crimes in Sri Lanka. Controlling crimes is a need of hour in the country. In the process of controlling the crimes, Sri Lanka may face some barriers. Reconciling those barriers is required to reduce the crimes. Reducing crimes will help to maintain the peace and order of the country. RECOMMENDATIONS 33 It is recommended that: a. Every police station is to be provided with LAN and WAN system to impart information quickly. b. In order to reduce pending investigations of crime, police personals should be provided training on special equipments which are used for crime detection. c. Selected police personals should be provided with training on special arms which small in size. d. All police personals to be trained to identify various explosives. New equipment to identify explosives is proposed to import. e. Studies on DNA to expose crime can be expanding under the guidance of the government of Sri Lanka. f. In order to detect crimes there is a requirement to enhance laboratory facilities. g. Most of financial institution, government money lending institutions, and even some large scale business places are advised to fit camera and associate security systems with using computers to identify criminals. h. House can be secured with fixing small electronic alert equipment which is not expensive. i. Vehicles can be fixed with special remote sensible alert system. Costs of this equipment are very less but must be produced in larger scale. h. Media and other new technical ways and means can be utilized to educate people. Even in films may also be subjected to give the message to general public. i. With good intelligence combine with technology, will reduce drugs trafficking rate. On the other hand it will help to minimize other crime pertaining to robbery. j. New technology to detect crimes with using satellite, radar system or any other technology means of detection methods. k. National identity card which we are using can be produced by some body. In order to enhance security system of national identity card some magnetic sensitive identity(bar coded) card can be introduced. Though it is expensive at the beginning it will be reduced the large scale property damages and the cost of the detection of crimes. l. New technologies for detection of communication in the form of telephone, mobile phone and internet means of communication to be introduced for crime detection personals. m. By using technology the detection process to be accelerated to suit with future requirements n. We need new technology as well as specialized knowledge on computer and internet. o. Media got so many responsibilities to prevention of crimes. But some instance media also contribute to produce criminals. Media in terms of government and private sector is to be used for preventing crimes.

Niches of the Mind;The Brain and Language :: Intellect Evolution Essays

Niches of the Mind;The Brain and Language As the story goes, creation is characterized by expansion and contraction, disorder and order, random change and selection. It is observed in evolution how random change and disorder have brought about, from the scraps floating in a puddle on early earth, the fantastic diversity and incomprehensible complexity of life. The counterpart to this is death, making space for the new and guiding changes in the old through selection. What can this story tell us about the evolution of humans, and our most distinguishing trait; our ability to tell stories? The human intellect is widely understood to be that which distinguishes us from other animals. Mayr tells us that the rapid brain expansion that took place in Australopithecines and early Homo is correlated with two factors; a change in hominids niche, moving from the trees to bush savanna, and the development of speech. (p 252) This essay attempts to summarize some current explanations of the relationships between language and the brain in human evolution, and relate them to another characteristic of humans correlated with the human intellect- our social complexity. Symbolic communication is by no means limited to humans, or, for that matter, to the most complex organisms. Most fairly social animals have a range of about fifteen to thirty-five physical displays or calls. "As far as we know, cuttlefish, related to squids, have about the same size repertoire size as non-human primates do." (class notes Ling. 101) The evolution of animal communication is thought to have occurred through "ritualization of previously existing behavior" (class notes Ling. 101) In most animals, communicative displays are innate, that is, genetically determined. This is not at all the case in humans; human language is learned. Yet a few of the main things that distinguish human language from other animal communication, namely grammar and syntax, are argued by some linguists to be instinctive. (Pinker) In addition to the lack of syntax, grammar, and a large lexicon, other animals, including higher-order primates, lack a highly developed theory of mind; the ability to conceptualize others' "knowledge, beliefs, intentions and goals" (class notes Ling. 101) For a long time the increase in brain size was seen as being correlated with the increasing complexity of tool technology in Australopithecines and early Homo. This theory is loosing popularity due to the observance of widespread tool use in other primates, and is giving way to theories in which the main thrust is rising social complexity.

Solutions Hmwk

ISDS-361AExercises 1. Mean, Median, Mode, Range, Variance & SD Panayiotis Skordi 1. A basketball player has the following points for seven games: 20, 25, 32, 18, 19, 22, 30 Compute the following measures of central location: a. mean b. median c. mode Answers a. Mean[pic] b. Median[pic] c. Mode There is no mode. 2. Consider the following population of measurements: 162, 152, 177, 157, 184, 176, 165, 181, 170, 163 a. compute the mean b. compute the median Answers a. Mean[pic] b. Median [pic] [pic] 3. The following data represent the number of children in a sample of 10 families from a certain community: , 2, 1, 1, 5, 3, 0, 1, 0, 2 a. compute the range b. compute the variance c. compute the standard deviation Answers a. Range [pic] b. Variance[pic] Remember that [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic] 14 2. 14. 41 22 0. 10. 01 31-0. 90. 81 41-0. 90. 81 55 3. 19. 61 63 1. 11. 21 70-1. 93. 61 81-0. 90. 81 90-1. 93. 61 102 0. 10. 01 Total1924. 9 [pic] Method 2[pic] [pic][pic][pic] 1416 224 311 411 5525 639 700 811 900 1024 Total1961 [pic] This is the same answer – as we would expect. c. The standard deviation is [pic] 4. Consider the following population of measurements: 162, 152, 177, 157, 184, 176, 165, 181, 170, 163 a. ompute the standard deviation Answer [pic] Remember that [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic] |1 |162 | |-6. 70 | |44. 89 | |2 |152 | |-16. 70 | |278. 89 | |3 |177 | |8. 30 | |68. 89 | |4 |157 | |-11. 70 | |136. 89 | |5 |184 | |15. 30 | |234. 09 | |6 |176 | |7. 30 | |53. 29 | |7 |165 | |-3. 0 | |13. 69 | |8 |181 | |12. 30 | |151. 29 | |9 |170 | |1. 30 | |1. 69 | |10 |163 | |-5. 70 | |32. 49 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Total |1687. 0 | | | |1016. 10 | [pic] The standard deviation is the square root of the variance [pic] Method 2[pic] pic][pic][pic] |1 |162 | |26244 | |2 |152 | |23104 | |3 |177 | |31329 | |4 |157 | |24649 | |5 |184 | |33856 | |6 |176 | |30976 | |7 |165 | |27225 | |8 |181 | |32761 | |9 |170 | |28900 | |10 |163 | |26569 | | | | | | | | | | | | |1687 | |285613 | [pic] As before, the standard deviation is the square root of the variance pic] 5. Monthly rent data in dollars for a sample of one-bedroom apartments in a small town in Iowa are as follows: 220, 216, 220, 205, 210, 240, 195, 235, 204 and 205. a. compute the sample monthly average rent. b. compute the sample median. c. what is the mode? Answers a. Average [pic] [pic][pic] |1 |220 | |2 |216 | |3 |220 | |4 |205 | |5 |210 | |6 |240 | |7 |195 | |8 |235 | |9 |204 | |10 |205 | | | | | |2,150 | | | [pic] b. MEDIAN 195 204 205 205 210 216 220 220 235 240 [pic] c. MODE205 and 220 (bimodal) 6. A sample of 25 families was asked how many pets they owned. Their responses were summarized in the following table: |Number of Pets |0 |1 |2 |3 |4 |5 | |Number of Families |3 |10 |5 |4 |2 |1 | Determine the mean, median and the mode of the number of pets owned per family. ANSWERS a. MEAN[pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic] 0 |3 |0 | |1 |10 |10 | |2 |5 |10 | |3 |4 |12 | |4 |2 |8 | |5 |1 |5 | | | | | | |25 |45 | [pic] b. MEDIAN1 median is 13th observation. c. MODE 1 most families have 1 pet. 7.The following data represent the ages in years of a sample of 25 employees from a government department: 31,43,56,23,49,42,33,61,44,28,48,38,44,35,40,64,52,42,47,39,53,27,36,35 and 20. Construct a relative frequency distribution for the data, using five class intervals and the value 20 as the lower limit of the first class. |20 | | | |23 | | | |27 | | | |28 | |4 | |31 | | | |33 | | | |35 | | | 35 | | | |36 | | | |38 | | | |39 | |7 | |40 | | | |42 | | | |42 | | | |43 | | | |44 | | | |44 | | | |47 | | | |48 | | | |49 | |9 | |52 | | | 53 | | | |56 | |3 | |61 | | | |64 | |2 | |Class Limits |Frequency |Relative Frequency | | | | | |20 upto 30 |4 |0. 16 | |30 upto 40 |7 |0. 28 | |40 upto 50 |9 |0. 36 | |50 upto 60 |3 |0. 12 | |60 upto 70 |2 |0. 8 | | | | | | |25 |1. 00 | 8. How many hours a day do college students spend studying? That question was asked to 100 college students, and the data are p resented in the table below. Hours per DayFrequency 0-225 2-448 4-615 6-89 8-103 a. compute the range b. compute the average hours per day spent studying. c. compute the variance of the number of hours per day spent studying d. find the median e. find the mode Answers a. The range is 10-0 = 10 b. Average[pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] 1 |0-2 |25 |1 |25 | |2 |2-4 |48 |3 |144 | |3 |4-6 |15 |5 |75 | |4 |6-8 |9 |7 |63 | |5 |8-10 |3 |9 |27 | | | | | | | | | |100 | |334 | [pic] c. compute the variance of the number of hours per day spent studying [pic] note that [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] |1 |0-2 |25 |1 |-2. 34 |5. 4756 |136. 89 | |2 |2-4 |48 |3 |-0. 34 |0. 1156 |5. 488 | |3 |4-6 |15 |5 |1. 66 |2. 7556 |41. 334 | |4 |6-8 |9 |7 |3. 66 |13. 3956 |120. 5604 | |5 |8-10 |3 |9 |5. 66 |32. 0356 |96. 1068 | | | | | | | | | | | |100 | | |53. 7780 |400. 4400 | [pic] Method 2 [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] 1 |0-2 |25 |1 |25 |25 | |2 |2-4 |48 |3 |144 |432 | |3 |4-6 |15 |5 |75 |37 5 | |4 |6-8 |9 |7 |63 |441 | |5 |8-10 |3 |9 |27 |243 | | | | | | | | | | |100 | |334 |1516 | [pic] d. Find the MEDIAN3 e. Find the MODE3 9. The following data is for the daily room rate in $, for staying at various hotels in downtown LA Hotels Offering RateDaily room rate 130 50 1470 690 3110 4130 1150 1170a. Compute the range b. Compute the average daily room rate. c. Compute the variance of the room rate. d. Find the median. e. Find the mode. Answers a. Range 170-30 =140 b. Average[pic]where [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic] | 1 |1 |30 |30 | |2 |7 |50 |350 | |3 |14 |70 |980 | |4 |6 |90 |540 | |5 |3 |110 |330 | |6 |4 |130 |520 | |7 |1 |150 |150 | 8 |1 |170 |170 | | | | | | | |37 | |3070 | [pic] c. Variance of the room rate [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] |1 |1 |30 |-52. 9730 |2806. 1359 |2806. 1359 | |2 |7 |50 |-32. 9730 |1087. 2169 |7610. 5186 | |3 |14 |70 |-12. 9730 |168. 2980 |2356. 1724 | |4 |6 |90 |7. 0270 |49. 3791 |296. 747 | |5 |3 |110 |27. 0270 |730. 4602 |2191. 3806 | |6 |4 |130 |47. 0270 |2211. 5413 |8846. 1651 | |7 |1 |150 |67. 0270 |4492. 6224 |4492. 6224 | |8 |1 |170 |87. 0270 |7573. 7034 |7573. 7034 | | | | | | | | | |37 | |136. 2162 | |36172. 9730 | [pic]Method 2 [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] |1 |1 |30 |30 |900 | |2 |7 |50 |350 |17500 | |3 |14 |70 |980 |68600 | |4 |6 |90 |540 |48600 | |5 |3 |110 |330 |36300 | |6 |4 |130 |520 |67600 | |7 |1 |150 |150 |22500 | |8 |1 |170 |170 |28900 | | | | | | | | |37 | |3,070 |290,900 | [pic] d. Find the MEDIAN70 e. Find the mode70 Solutions Hmwk ISDS-361AExercises 1. Mean, Median, Mode, Range, Variance & SD Panayiotis Skordi 1. A basketball player has the following points for seven games: 20, 25, 32, 18, 19, 22, 30 Compute the following measures of central location: a. mean b. median c. mode Answers a. Mean[pic] b. Median[pic] c. Mode There is no mode. 2. Consider the following population of measurements: 162, 152, 177, 157, 184, 176, 165, 181, 170, 163 a. compute the mean b. compute the median Answers a. Mean[pic] b. Median [pic] [pic] 3. The following data represent the number of children in a sample of 10 families from a certain community: , 2, 1, 1, 5, 3, 0, 1, 0, 2 a. compute the range b. compute the variance c. compute the standard deviation Answers a. Range [pic] b. Variance[pic] Remember that [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic] 14 2. 14. 41 22 0. 10. 01 31-0. 90. 81 41-0. 90. 81 55 3. 19. 61 63 1. 11. 21 70-1. 93. 61 81-0. 90. 81 90-1. 93. 61 102 0. 10. 01 Total1924. 9 [pic] Method 2[pic] [pic][pic][pic] 1416 224 311 411 5525 639 700 811 900 1024 Total1961 [pic] This is the same answer – as we would expect. c. The standard deviation is [pic] 4. Consider the following population of measurements: 162, 152, 177, 157, 184, 176, 165, 181, 170, 163 a. ompute the standard deviation Answer [pic] Remember that [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic] |1 |162 | |-6. 70 | |44. 89 | |2 |152 | |-16. 70 | |278. 89 | |3 |177 | |8. 30 | |68. 89 | |4 |157 | |-11. 70 | |136. 89 | |5 |184 | |15. 30 | |234. 09 | |6 |176 | |7. 30 | |53. 29 | |7 |165 | |-3. 0 | |13. 69 | |8 |181 | |12. 30 | |151. 29 | |9 |170 | |1. 30 | |1. 69 | |10 |163 | |-5. 70 | |32. 49 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Total |1687. 0 | | | |1016. 10 | [pic] The standard deviation is the square root of the variance [pic] Method 2[pic] pic][pic][pic] |1 |162 | |26244 | |2 |152 | |23104 | |3 |177 | |31329 | |4 |157 | |24649 | |5 |184 | |33856 | |6 |176 | |30976 | |7 |165 | |27225 | |8 |181 | |32761 | |9 |170 | |28900 | |10 |163 | |26569 | | | | | | | | | | | | |1687 | |285613 | [pic] As before, the standard deviation is the square root of the variance pic] 5. Monthly rent data in dollars for a sample of one-bedroom apartments in a small town in Iowa are as follows: 220, 216, 220, 205, 210, 240, 195, 235, 204 and 205. a. compute the sample monthly average rent. b. compute the sample median. c. what is the mode? Answers a. Average [pic] [pic][pic] |1 |220 | |2 |216 | |3 |220 | |4 |205 | |5 |210 | |6 |240 | |7 |195 | |8 |235 | |9 |204 | |10 |205 | | | | | |2,150 | | | [pic] b. MEDIAN 195 204 205 205 210 216 220 220 235 240 [pic] c. MODE205 and 220 (bimodal) 6. A sample of 25 families was asked how many pets they owned. Their responses were summarized in the following table: |Number of Pets |0 |1 |2 |3 |4 |5 | |Number of Families |3 |10 |5 |4 |2 |1 | Determine the mean, median and the mode of the number of pets owned per family. ANSWERS a. MEAN[pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic] 0 |3 |0 | |1 |10 |10 | |2 |5 |10 | |3 |4 |12 | |4 |2 |8 | |5 |1 |5 | | | | | | |25 |45 | [pic] b. MEDIAN1 median is 13th observation. c. MODE 1 most families have 1 pet. 7.The following data represent the ages in years of a sample of 25 employees from a government department: 31,43,56,23,49,42,33,61,44,28,48,38,44,35,40,64,52,42,47,39,53,27,36,35 and 20. Construct a relative frequency distribution for the data, using five class intervals and the value 20 as the lower limit of the first class. |20 | | | |23 | | | |27 | | | |28 | |4 | |31 | | | |33 | | | |35 | | | 35 | | | |36 | | | |38 | | | |39 | |7 | |40 | | | |42 | | | |42 | | | |43 | | | |44 | | | |44 | | | |47 | | | |48 | | | |49 | |9 | |52 | | | 53 | | | |56 | |3 | |61 | | | |64 | |2 | |Class Limits |Frequency |Relative Frequency | | | | | |20 upto 30 |4 |0. 16 | |30 upto 40 |7 |0. 28 | |40 upto 50 |9 |0. 36 | |50 upto 60 |3 |0. 12 | |60 upto 70 |2 |0. 8 | | | | | | |25 |1. 00 | 8. How many hours a day do college students spend studying? That question was asked to 100 college students, and the data are p resented in the table below. Hours per DayFrequency 0-225 2-448 4-615 6-89 8-103 a. compute the range b. compute the average hours per day spent studying. c. compute the variance of the number of hours per day spent studying d. find the median e. find the mode Answers a. The range is 10-0 = 10 b. Average[pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] 1 |0-2 |25 |1 |25 | |2 |2-4 |48 |3 |144 | |3 |4-6 |15 |5 |75 | |4 |6-8 |9 |7 |63 | |5 |8-10 |3 |9 |27 | | | | | | | | | |100 | |334 | [pic] c. compute the variance of the number of hours per day spent studying [pic] note that [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] |1 |0-2 |25 |1 |-2. 34 |5. 4756 |136. 89 | |2 |2-4 |48 |3 |-0. 34 |0. 1156 |5. 488 | |3 |4-6 |15 |5 |1. 66 |2. 7556 |41. 334 | |4 |6-8 |9 |7 |3. 66 |13. 3956 |120. 5604 | |5 |8-10 |3 |9 |5. 66 |32. 0356 |96. 1068 | | | | | | | | | | | |100 | | |53. 7780 |400. 4400 | [pic] Method 2 [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] 1 |0-2 |25 |1 |25 |25 | |2 |2-4 |48 |3 |144 |432 | |3 |4-6 |15 |5 |75 |37 5 | |4 |6-8 |9 |7 |63 |441 | |5 |8-10 |3 |9 |27 |243 | | | | | | | | | | |100 | |334 |1516 | [pic] d. Find the MEDIAN3 e. Find the MODE3 9. The following data is for the daily room rate in $, for staying at various hotels in downtown LA Hotels Offering RateDaily room rate 130 50 1470 690 3110 4130 1150 1170a. Compute the range b. Compute the average daily room rate. c. Compute the variance of the room rate. d. Find the median. e. Find the mode. Answers a. Range 170-30 =140 b. Average[pic]where [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic] | 1 |1 |30 |30 | |2 |7 |50 |350 | |3 |14 |70 |980 | |4 |6 |90 |540 | |5 |3 |110 |330 | |6 |4 |130 |520 | |7 |1 |150 |150 | 8 |1 |170 |170 | | | | | | | |37 | |3070 | [pic] c. Variance of the room rate [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] |1 |1 |30 |-52. 9730 |2806. 1359 |2806. 1359 | |2 |7 |50 |-32. 9730 |1087. 2169 |7610. 5186 | |3 |14 |70 |-12. 9730 |168. 2980 |2356. 1724 | |4 |6 |90 |7. 0270 |49. 3791 |296. 747 | |5 |3 |110 |27. 0270 |730. 4602 |2191. 3806 | |6 |4 |130 |47. 0270 |2211. 5413 |8846. 1651 | |7 |1 |150 |67. 0270 |4492. 6224 |4492. 6224 | |8 |1 |170 |87. 0270 |7573. 7034 |7573. 7034 | | | | | | | | | |37 | |136. 2162 | |36172. 9730 | [pic]Method 2 [pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] |1 |1 |30 |30 |900 | |2 |7 |50 |350 |17500 | |3 |14 |70 |980 |68600 | |4 |6 |90 |540 |48600 | |5 |3 |110 |330 |36300 | |6 |4 |130 |520 |67600 | |7 |1 |150 |150 |22500 | |8 |1 |170 |170 |28900 | | | | | | | | |37 | |3,070 |290,900 | [pic] d. Find the MEDIAN70 e. Find the mode70

Discrimination Concerning African Americans Essay

  Differences in race lead to divergent levels of economic development within the United States. Analysts often try to explain this phenomenon by observing a specific ethnic group’s tradition and cultural ideology. Economists expand their analysis on the economic behaviors of African Americans by taking into consideration personal histories and value systems of the group under study. American families measure economic status in terms of income, and factors associated with material security as a whole. These factors may consist of health care, college funds, and retirement plans. However, African American families lag well behind when conceptualizing economic development under these terms. The reason is due to numerous instances of discrimination that occur in the U. S. Many of America’s public policies aid in the underdevelopment of non-white families. Increased economic development within America is the key to upward political and social mobility. If minorities are denied inevitable rights to equality, access to economic development becomes a highly difficult process. Despite America’s idealized view on equal opportunity, it is valid to assume that economic security has been limited on the basis of race. Therefore, it is important to investigate why white American families are economically better-off than non-white American families. One must take into account aspects of political participation, education, and the number of children a family has in the home in order to understand this research question. Contemporary Viewpoints: The lack of political participation of minority groups is a prevalent issue within the United States, explaining why non-white American families are less economically developed when compared to white American families. According to Douglas S. Massey (1995), minority families increasingly speak languages and bear cultures quite different than the established norms within the U. S. regime. He has found that ethnic groups carry their customs into new generations, leading many non-white families to become displaced and impoverished. Brinck Kerr and Will Miller (1997) believe that it is necessary for non-white American families to participate in elections in order to obtain equal representation that they are now lacking. They go on to say that political representation is the key to higher employment levels, and is a significant determinant to the minority share of professional positions. William H. Frey (1996) finds that immigrants usually encounter highly stratified society characterized by high income inequality leaving little room for upward mobility. In addition, Paula D. Mcklain (1990) assumes that non-white American families will continue to reside in low economic subcultures that are institutionally incomplete if they are represented at much lower ratios relative to the population portions of whites. Susan Welch (1990) has found that minority groups have not even achieved half their population proportions in political elections. These numbers are even lower than what they were a decade ago. She states that other factors that lead to low political participation within minority groups is that a substantial number of non-white American families are not citizens, and therefore are not eligible to vote. Also, Massey has found that America enacts policies that hinder the socioeconomic status of immigrants for they are underrepresented at virtually all levels and institutions in United States government. Moreover, Friedberg and Hunt (1995) have found that non-white American families receive less benefits than white families because of geographic segregation within the community. The various dispersion of minority families in different low-income areas within the U. S. makes it difficult for these families to be represented proportionally. Consequently, Rodney E. Hero and Caroline J. Tolbert (1995) believe minority families can now be easily manipulated by government because they are not equally accounted for. Therefore, non-white American families are not able to take advantage of economically developed determinants such as health care and retirement funds. The inscription of the Statue of liberty expresses to the world to â€Å"give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free†¦. † America continuously contradicts itself on the validity of this concept due to the increasingly economic tension between Caucasian and non-white families. Friedberg and Hunt (1995) give the example of Proposition 187, which makes many non-white American families ineligible for certain services such as public health. Non-white American families are not given the opportunity to take advantage of benefactors the U. S. offers to white American families. Therefore, Non-white American families lack of political participation, and unequal representation in governmental institutions and legislative bodies, leads them to be less economically developed than white American families. Education is another obstacle to economic development that non-white families face. Education is a vital tool to economic security. However, Melissa Marschall (1997) has found that current policies demonstrate minorities have been denied equal access to education. She has found that assignment systems based on assessments of language deficiencies or other individual needs are used to separate non-whites from whites. According to Jeffrey J. Mondack and Diana C. Mutz (1997), inequitable school financing is equally detrimental to non-white students. Funding for public schools comes from property taxes. They go along to say that predomintly non-white schools tend to be in central inner city school districts which have a smaller property tax base. In addition, the Office of Civil Rights has identified practices that are termed â€Å"second generation school discrimination†. Practices such as ability grouping, suspensions, and tracking may appear on the surface to be normal educational practices. When examining these components closer, Brick Kerr and Will Miller (1997) have found they have a negative impact on minority students. Ability grouping is a form of segregation that separates minority students from whites. They have found that before even attempting to teach non-white students, they are diagnosed with having linguistic or intellectual problems. The students are therefore required to take special and bilingual classes, making it difficult for them to succeed. According to Robert E. England (1986), non-white students are many times pulled out of regular classes and placed into bilingual classes only on the basis of ethnicity rather than their understanding of English. Brick and Miller go on to explain that suspensions are a second tactic used to encourage the failure of minority students in school. Non-white students are given more harsh disciplinary sentences than white students. Moreover, studies show that the ratio of minority students kicked out of school is disproportionately higher than whites, making the students more likely to drop out. Marschall has found that schools also advocate differences in ability grouping and discipline, leading to distinctions in tracking between non-whites and whites. The majority white students in high ability groups are often counseled to choose college preparatory tracks. However, minorities in low ability groups are counseled into vocational or general tracks, making them less likely to attend post-secondary education. Mondack and Mutz believe that the overall pattern of racial inequality the school system has created makes non-whites less likely to receive a quality education than whites. This truth makes it difficult for economic development to occur within non-white American families. The number of children in a family lead to increased poverty levels and low economic development within non-white American families. M. Klitsch (1990) has found that minority women have children at an extensively higher rate than that of white women. Also, he states that non-white women represent a small percentage of the population, however they account for a greater number of births. Alejandro Portes and Cynthia Truelove (1987) go on to say that non-white families are generally poorer than white families because of the higher number of children in the home. This leads them to be more likely to live below the poverty line. In addition, Genevieve M. Kenney and Nancy E. Reichman (1998) have found the population of non-whites increases faster than whites every year due to high fertility rates. Similarly, the two have found that fertility rates of non-whites families living in impoverished communities is almost double compared to white families. Klitsch has found that non-white families have an estimated 5. 5 people to a household, while white families only 3. 8. Therefore, these high rates lead to low socioeconomic status, and limited opportunities to increase economic security. According to Kenney and Reichman, the high fertility rates are due to low percentages of minorities who use contraceptives. They have also found that non-white women are less likely to have an abortion than white women. One might view this as a positive aspect. However, Portes and Truelove believe that one must take into account the over a quarter of minority families who have an income below the federal poverty line, which is almost one half greater than those of white families. Therefore, the high number of children within non-white American families make them more likely to experience economic deprivation than white American families. There has been an abundance of scholarly research previously conducted on the economic differences between white and non-white American families. They usually consist of data sources such as the U. S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, and the U. S. bureau of the Census. The Foreign Born Population of the United States and Statistical Reports are used with the previously listed sources to compare ethnic groups (Friedberg and Hunt, pg. 5). These databases yield cross-sectional designs that develop into time series reports in order to make assumptions on variables dealing with GNP and income, proving distinct differences in the races under study. For instance, researchers assume that white families are more economically developed than non-whites. This is because the average white American family makes $44,000 a year, and the average non-white American family does not make half this amount (6-7). These figures are valid in drawing conclusions about correlative relationships, satisfying important ideological factors necessary to study when dealing with the dependent variable of race. A more effective method of analysis was a study derived from interviews in a low income Los Angeles county. The participants were white and non-white females. The study was conducted between January 1984 and May 1985 (M. Kitsch, 136-137). In addition, the sample consisted of a three-stage cluster of census tracks, blocks, and household addresses. This cross-sectional design embodied research dealing with fertility rates of different races. The minority women proved to have higher fertility rates in low income sectors, leading Klitsch to question the different ways non-white American families conceptualize economic development. Non-white American families have to deal with numerous accounts of racial discrimination. It is difficult for a non-white American family to become economically stable in terms of income and security plans. The reason is due to being a minority in a predominately white America. Therefore, non-white American families are less economically developed than white American families because: H1 non-white American families are less likely to participate in elections than white American families. H2 non-white Americans are more likely to be discriminated against in school than white Americans. H3 the more children in a household, the more likely a family will be economically deprived. Implications and Conclusion: Education, political participation, and the number of children a family has all affect the levels of economic development within the household for white American families. Even though education levels has a stronger affect toward higher levels of income, when the three variables are measured together, they are all highly statistically significant. In non-white American homes, education levels appears to be the key determinant of their economic status. Further test need to be measured in reference to how the number of children a family has and political participation affect the economic security of non-white American families. With this, the above hypotheses will prove to have more validity. However, in both cases it was important to measure education, the number of children a family has, and political participation together in order to understand the affect these variables have on each other, and how this affect leads to higher or lower levels of economic development within the family. These multivariate studies are also important in predicting the affect the independent variables will have on total family income in the future. It can be assumed that the highest year of school completed will continue to have a strong affect toward economic development in the future for both white and non-white American families. In addition, the number of children in a white American family and their political participation are significant variables to measure when determining their economic standpoint in future years to come. There are alternative approaches to identifying explanations to why non-white American families are less economically developed than white American families. One example is the difference in income between non-white and white American families who have single parents and ones that have two parents. Another alternative approach is identifying education as only an antecedent variable, and observing how it relates to occupation, the true independent variable under study. From here, one can observe how economic development is related to a person’s occupation within the home. As anyone who walks the streets of America’s largest cities knows, there has been a profound transformation of different ethnic cultures within the United States. The rapidity of the change has led to growing competition of economic development between white and non-white American families. This competition has lead to ethnic prejudice and discrimination as the United States continues to assimilate into the melting pot for the American dream. Political participation, education, and the number of children within the home are variables that allow the transition to become a less arduous process for white American families. However, if non-white American families continue to do poorly in terms of economic development because of these variables, non-whites will continue to lag behind the income scale in comparison to whites. Research along these lines will lead to the study of relative differences between ethnic cultures. An example is the discovery of why almost half the number of minorities return to their country of origin after experiences of economic injustice. Previous research may also benefit other analysis in the field of economics by itemizing fertility rates in terms of the higher number of non-white American families who lack the finances to properly nourish their children. These new variables along with my research can in time become valid determinants in explaining why white American families are economically better off that non-white American families.

Disability Awareness Essay Example

Disability Awareness Essay Example Disability Awareness Essay Disability Awareness Essay Introduction As a member of Security Team you may experience the need to communicate with disabled customers or visitors to these premises. It is therefore important that we all understand the correct etiquette to use to ensure that the customer or visitor has a positive memorable visit due to the excellent customer service we provide. Words and phrases guidelines Disability vs. Handicap A disability is a condition caused by such things as an accident or trauma, disease, or genetics that limits a person’s vision, hearing, speech, mobility, or mental function. A handicap is a constraint imposed upon a person, regardless of that person’s ability or disability. These constraints can be physical or attitudinal. For example, stairs and curbs are handicaps imposed on those who use wheelchairs. Points to Note Individuals with disabilities are people! Individuals with disabilities are whole people! They expect to be treated with the same dignity and respect that you do. Just because someone has a disability does not mean he/she is disabled. Disability Etiquette Remember, he/she is a person, NOT a disability. A wheelchair is part of a person’s body space; do not lean on it. Speak directly to the individual, not to the person assisting him or her. Interact with the person at eye level. If need be, sit down. Be aware of the distance between you and the individual, as he or she may have difficulty hearing you. Offering help is never the wrong thing to do, but make sure it is provided in an unobtrusive manner. Follow through on whatever needs to be done. Do not make a premature exit when assisting someone. Never patronise them by patting them on the head or back. Offer to shake their hand, even if it appears as if they have limited use of their arms or have an artificial limb. Simply the gesture will help them feel accepted and create a warmer environment for communication. For those who cannot shake hands, lightly touch the individual on the shoulder or arm to welcome their presence. Look at and speak directly to the person, not through a companion, carer, or interpreter. Treat adults as adults. Don’t apologize if you use an expression such as â€Å"I’ve got to run† or â€Å"See you later† that relates to the person’s disability. These expressions are part of everyday language and it is likely the apology will be more offensive than the expression. Don’t pet or feed service animals or guide dogs as they are working. When giving directions, make sure you consider things such as the weather, locations of ramps/curb-cuts, and other physical obstacles that may hinder travel for individuals with disabilities. Speech Disability Etiquette Never assume†¦. many people mistakenly identify these individuals as being mentally retarded or mentally ill. Make sure to be patient in finding out which communication method works best for them. Be patient and unhurried when talking to the individual; understand that the conversation may not move along rapidly. Make eye contact. Use the same tone of voice and volume that you would normally use unless the person asks differently. Do not try to finish the person’s sentences; rather be patent so the person can complete his or her thoughts. Ask questions that require a short answer or a nod or shake of the head. If you do not understand, ask the person to repeat the statement. Listen to the person’s words, not to the manner in which they are said. Respect that a person with a speech impairment may prefer one-on-one conversation to group discussion. Ask the person how to best communicate instead of guessing. Be 100% attentive when conversing with an individual who has difficulty speaking. If you are in a noisy and/or crowded environment, don’t panic. Just try and move to a quieter location to talk. Let them complete their own sentences. Be patient and do not try to speak for them. Do not pretend to understand; instead, tell them what you do understand and allow them to respond. Do not be corrective, but rather, encouraging. When necessary, it’s OK to ask short questions that require short answers. Wheelchair Etiquette Do not automatically assist the individual without permission. It is ok to offer assistance. However, if the offer is not accepted, respect his/her request! Some who use wheelchairs may also use canes or other assistive devices and may not need his/her wheelchair all the time. Individual who use wheelchairs may require different degrees of assistance. If you will be speaking with an individual in a wheelchair for more than a couple minutes, find a place where you can sit down to give the individual a more comfortable viewing angle. A person’s wheelchair is part of his/her own personal space. Never move, lean on, rock, or touch his/her wheelchair without permission. In addition to being rude, it can be dangerous. Do not assume that having to use a wheelchair is a tragedy. Wheelchairs can be a means of freedom to fully engage in life. Hearing Disability Etiquette Do not shout at a hearing impaired person unless they request you to. Just speak in a normal tone but make sure your lips are visible. Keep conversations clear and find a quiet location to communicate. If you are asked to repeat yourself, answering â€Å"nothing, it’s not important† implies the person is not worth repeating yourself for. It is demeaning; be patient and comply. Show consideration by facing the light source and keeping things (such as cigarettes or your hands) away from you mouth while speaking. Visual Disability Etiquette When meeting someone with a visual disability, identify yourself and others with you (e. g. â€Å"Jane is on my left and Jack is on my right. †). Continue to identify the person with whom you are speaking. Do not assume that a person needs your help, rather ask if they would like help. When providing assistance, offer simple information about the surrounding area in order to help familiarize the person with the location. Follow through on what needs to be done when helping an individual with a visual impairment; do not make a premature exit. When greeting a person, feel free to shake his or her hand after saying, â€Å"How do you do? Let me shake your hand. † When speaking with a person who is visually impaired identify yourself by name. Address people by name during a conversation so they know you are speaking to them. Speak in a normal tone and speed of voice. Answer all questions verbally instead of with nods, gestures, or other body language. Direct your conversation to the person with the vision impairment, not to another person or helper who may be with them. In order to gain the attention of a person with a visual impairment, touch the individual lightly on the arm as you speak. Do not feel awkward giving written information to a person with a visual impairment; he or she can always ask for assistance reading it. Let the person know when you are leaving his or her company. When walking with someone with a visual impairment, offer them your arm for guidance. They will likely keep a half-step behind to anticipate curbs and steps. Always remember that the person is not the condition. Keep all your speech person focused, not disability focused. AcceptableUnacceptable A person with a disabilityCripple DisabilityHandicap; handicapped person A person who has mental or developmental disabilitiesRetarded, Spastic Able-bodied; able to walk, see, etc Healthy; normal- Just because someone has a disability does not mean they are not healthy A wheelchair user; walks with aidConfined/restricted to a wheelchair Mental or emotional disabilityCrazy; insane A person who is deaf/ hearing impairment Deaf and dumb; mute A person with epilepsy An epileptic Avoid terms which carry a negative connotation: Abnormal, Afflicted, Confined, Crippled, Defective, Handicap, Invalid, Lame, Palsied, Retarded, Stricken, Sufferer, Victim, Withered Use empowering, individualized vocabulary; dont clump them with phrases like the blind or the disabled.

Cajun History, Language, Music, Cuisine, and Culture

Cajun History, Language, Music, Cuisine, and Culture Cajuns are a group of people largely residing in southern Louisiana, a region rich with the history of several cultures. Descended from the Acadians, French settlers from Atlantic Canada, today they celebrate a diverse and vibrant culture unlike any other. Cajun History In 1754, France went to war with Great Britain in North America over lucrative fishing and fur-trapping efforts, a conflict known as the Seven Years War. This conflict ended in defeat for the French with the Treaty of Paris in 1763. France was forced to give up their rights to their colonies in North America as a term of that treaty. During the war the Acadians were exiled from the land theyd occupied for over a century, a process known as the Great Disturbance. The exiled Acadians resettled in many locations including the British North American colonies, France, England, the Caribbean and for some, a Spanish colony known as Louisiana. Settlement of Cajun Country in Louisiana The new settlers began cultivating the land for agriculture and fished the Gulf of Mexico and surrounding bayous. They navigated the Mississippi River. People from other cultures including the Spanish, Canary Islanders, Native Americans, descendants of African slaves and French Creoles from the Caribbean settled in Louisiana as well during this same time period. People from these different cultures interacted with each other over the years and formed the modern-day Cajun culture. The word â€Å"Cajun† itself is a an evolution of the word â€Å"Acadian,† in the French-based creole language that became widely spoken among the settlers in this area. France acquired Louisiana from Spain in 1800, only to sell the area to the United States of America three years later in the Louisiana Purchase. The area settled by the Acadians and other cultures became known as the Territory of Orleans. American settlers poured into the Territory soon after, eager to make money. The Cajuns sold the fertile land along the Mississippi River and pushed westward, to modern south-central Louisiana, where they could settle the land for no cost. There, they cleared land for pasture grazing and began growing crops such as cotton and rice. This area is known as Acadiana due to the influence from Cajun culture. Cajun Culture and Language As a result Cajun French became spoken less and nearly died out altogether during the mid-20th century. Organizations such as the Council for the Development of French in Louisiana devoted their efforts to provide means for Louisianans of all cultures to learn French. In 2000, the Council reported 198,784 Francophones in Louisiana, many of whom speak Cajun French. Many speakers statewide speak English as their primary language but use French at home. Cajun Cuisine Cajun Music With increased exposure to other cultures through Internet-based media Cajun culture continues to remain popular and, without a doubt, will continue to thrive.

Mount Wilson Observatory

Mount Wilson Observatory High in the San Gabriel mountains, north of the busy Los Angeles basin, the telescopes at the Mount Wilson Observatory have been watching the skies for more than a century. Through its venerable instruments, astronomers have made discoveries that have changed humanitys understanding of the universe. Fast Facts: Mount Wilson Observatory Mount Wilson Observatory has four telescopes, three solar towers, and four interferometer arrays. The largest telescope is the 100-inch Hooker Telescope.One of the most important discoveries made at Mount Wilson in its early years was by Edwin P. Hubble. He found that the Andromeda Nebula is actually a separate galaxy.The CHARA Array on Mount Wilson was used in 2013 to detect starspots on the star Zeta Andromedae, and in 2007, it made the first measurement of the angular diameter of a planet around another star. Today, Mount Wilson remains one of the premier observatories in the world, despite the incursions of light pollution that threaten its clear views of the sky. It is run by the Mount Wilson Institute, which took over the administration of the observatory after Carnegie Institution for Science planned to shut it down in 1984. The site has been kept open and running again since the mid-1990s. Mount Wilson and Observatory ridge aerial photo. Doc Searls, CC BY 2.0   History of Mount Wilson Observatory Mount Wilson Observatory was built on the 1,740-meter tall Mount Wilson (named for the early settler Benjamin Wilson). It was founded by George Ellery Hale, a solar astronomer devoted to studying and understanding sunspots, and was also one of the key people involved in building telescopes in the early 20th century. He brought the 60-inch Hale reflecting telescope to Mount Wilson, followed by the 100-inch Hooker telescope. He also built a 200-inch telescope at nearby Palomar Mountain, south of Los Angeles. It was Hales work that eventually inspired Griffith J. Griffith to give money for the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. The observatory at Mount Wilson was originally built with funding by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. In more recent times, it has received funding from universities. It also solicits support from the public in the form of donations for the continued operation of the facilities.   The 100-inch Hooker telescope, once the largest in the world. It is still in use today. Ken Spencer, CC BY-SA 3.0   Challenges and Telescopes Building world-class telescopes atop the mountain posed a number of challenges for the observatorys founders.  Access to the mountain was limited by the rough roads and even rougher terrain. Still, a consortium of people from Harvard, University of Southern California, and Carnegie Institutions began to work on building the observatory. Two telescopes, a 40-inch Alvan Clark instrument, and a 13-inch refractor were ordered for the new site. Harvard astronomers began using the observatory in the late 1880s. Encroaching tourists and the owners of the land made things difficult, and for a time the observatory site shut down. The planned 40-inch telescope was diverted for use at the Yerkes Observatory in Illinois.   Eventually, Hale and others decided to return to Mount Wilson to build new telescopes there. Hale wanted to do stellar spectroscopy as part of new advances in astronomy. After much back-and-forth and negotiations, Hale signed a contract to lease 40 acres at the top of Mount Wilson to build an observatory. In particular, he wanted to create a solar observatory there. It took several years, but eventually, four great telescopes, including the world’s largest solar and stellar instruments, would get built on the mountain. Using those facilities, astronomers such as Edwin Hubble made significant discoveries about stars and galaxies.   The Original Mount Wilson Telescopes The Mount Wilson telescopes were behemoths to build and transport up the mountain. Since few vehicles could make the drive, Hale had to rely on horse-drawn carriages to bring up the mirrors and equipment needed. The result of all the hard work was the building of the Snow Solar Telescope, which was the first one to be installed on the mountain. Joining it was the 60-foot solar tower, and then a 150-foot solar tower. For non-solar viewing, the observatory built the 60-inch Hale Telescope, and then finally the 100-inch Hooker Telescope. The Hooker held the record for many years as the worlds largest telescope until the 200-inch was built at Palomar.   The Hale telescope being transported up to the summit of Mount Wilson. Public domain.  Ã‚   Current Instruments Mount Wilson Observatory eventually gained several solar telescopes over the years. It has also added instruments such as the Infrared Spatial Interferometer. This array gives astronomers another way to study infrared radiation from celestial objects. In addition, there are two stellar interferometers, a 61-cm telescope, and the Caltech Infrared Telescope are also in use on the mountain. In 2004, Georgia State University built an optical interferometer called the CHARA Array (named for the Center for Angular Resolution Astronomy). Its one of the most powerful instruments of its kind.   The top of the solar tower on Mount Wilson.   Dave Foc, CC BY-SA 3.0.   Each piece of the Mount Wilson Observatory collection is equipped with state-of-the-art CCD cameras, detector arrays, and spectrometers and spectrographs. All these instruments help astronomers record the observations, create images, and dissect the light that streams from distant objects in the cosmos.  In addition, to help correct for atmospheric conditions, the 60-inch telescope has been outfitted with adaptive optics that allow it to get sharper images. Notable Observations at Mount Wilson Not long after the largest telescopes were built, astronomers began flocking to use them. In particular, astronomer Edwin P. Hubble used the Hooker to peer out at distant objects that were (at the time) called spiral nebulae.  It was at Mount Wilson that he made his famous observations of Cepheid variable stars in the Andromeda nebula, and concluded that this object was really a distant and distinct galaxy. That discovery in the Andromeda Galaxy shook the foundations of astronomy. Then, a few years later, Hubble and his assistant, Milton Humason, made further observations that proved the universe is expanding. These observations formed the basis of the modern study of cosmology: the origin and evolution of the universe. Its views of the expanding universe have informed cosmologys constant search for an understanding of such events as the Big Bang.   Edwin P. Hubble, the astronomer who used the Mount Wilson 100-inch telescope to observe distant galaxies. His work led to the discovery of the expanding universe. Public domain   Mount Wilson Observatory has also been used to look for evidence of such things as dark matter, by astronomer Fritz Zwicky, and further work on the different types of stellar populations by Walter Baade. The question of dark matter has been studied by other astronomers as well, including the late Vera Rubin. Some of astronomys most prominent names have used this facility over the years, including Margaret Harwood, Alan Sandage, and many others. Its still heavily used today and allows remote access to observers from around the world.   Dr. Vera Cooper Rubin in 1970, working on measuring galaxy rotation rates. Vera Rubin Mount Wilson in the Public Eye The administration of Mount Wilson Observatory is also dedicated to public outreach and education. To that end, the 60-inch telescope is used for educational observing. The grounds of the observatory are open to visitors, and there are weekend observing sessions and tours available as the weather permits. Hollywood has used Mount Wilson for a filming location, and the world has watched several times via Webcam as the observatory was threatened by wildfires. Sources â€Å"CHARA - Home.† Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy, www.chara.gsu.edu/.Collins, Marvin. â€Å"Benjamins Mountain.† Broadcast History, www.oldradio.com/archives/stations/LA/mtwilson1.htm.â€Å"Mount Wilson Observatory.† Atlas Obscura, Atlas Obscura, 15 Jan. 2014, www.atlasobscura.com/places/mount-wilson-observatory.â€Å"Mount Wilson Observatory.† Mount Wilson Observatory, www.mtwilson.edu/.

Auditing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 5

Auditing - Essay Example Fraud refers to intentional miscalculations in the financial records. An unqualified opinion concludes that the financial reports are of true and fair view of the actual state of the ground. Audit risk is made up of inherent, control and detection risks. Inherent risk is more likely to occur where transactions are of a complex nature or in situations where financial estimates are through judgment. This type of risk is the worst case as all controls have failed. Control risk is the probability of a material misstatement occurs in management assertion about a group of transactions or accounts. The risk of detection entails the severity and the procedures carried out by the auditor will not detect material errors that have occurred in the accounting records. Since the financial statement cannot be as a whole, the auditor has to identify areas of heightened financial risks (Earley and Phillips, 2008). Cash and cash equivalents form a heightened area of risk. Cash at hand can easily be lost in fraud related activities as it is a liquid asset. The material misstatement of cash and cash equivalent increases the amount of assets in the company that would hinder the auditor from giving the actual state of the company. The amount of cash balance is â‚ ¬ 15.2m a decrease from the previous year’s balance of â‚ ¬ 20.5m. The auditor should use analytical tests to determine whether the expenditures attributed to cash are true. Some compliance tests include: the comparison of previous years balances and significant changes in amounts and deviations from the trends. Accounts opened and closed throughout the year should be investigated. Computations of quick current ratio should be taken and compared to other previous years. Lack of consistency in these ratios may indicate a material misstatement in the cash and cash equivalent account

Performance & Reward Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Performance & Reward Management - Research Paper Example d Management, on the other hand, is related to one’s understanding of an individual’s motivating factors as well as their determination of the pay, bonus and other rewards they receive (Vince, 2002b). It is then in line with these definitions that the manner by which these concepts are understood by organizations tend to vary. Apparently, there are some organizations that basically link the two in a strong and explicit way. Conversely, there are also other firms who keep both management concepts separate from each other. However, the study of Vince (2002b) reveals that work in organizations that separate these two concepts tend to be characterized by higher levels of employee dissatisfaction. In the same manner, they also tend to experience higher turnover rates with the employees showing poor morale. Furthermore, Vince (2002b) also showed that these organizations tend to pose a desire aimed towards changing a certain aspect of the employees’ behaviour. The definition of Shields (2007) with regard to performance and reward management concurs with the above presented statements of Vince (2002c). Shields (2007), in establishing the link existing between the concepts, first discussed the purpose of reward management. According to him, a working organization that adopts a reward management scheme is usually guided by three main objectives; namely (Shields, 2007): (1) the need to attract the right people at the right time for the right jobs, tasks and roles; (2) the need to retain the best people through recognising and rewarding the contributions they made to the company; and finally, (3) the need to motivate the employees so as to ensure that they will contribute to the organization, the best of their capabilities. With regard to this definition, Shields (2007) then discusses that the strong link between reward and performance management has been clearly established for it has clearly expressed the need to ensure the motivation of the employees which are then

The Islamic Empire Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

The Islamic Empire - Essay Example The Muslim physicians were very early and keen experimenters too, and they invented many surgical techniques and dietary improvements. Unlike Christian doctors of the period, they believed in active intervention to heal people and had considerably more success than western monks and nuns, who mainly offered basic nursing and religious support. 3 The Christian Crusades started out as pious journeys which individuals made as a way of doing penance for their sins. They were extensions of local pilgrimages to various churches and holy places and people banded together to set off for Jerusalem, which was revered above all places on earth because of its association with Jesus Christ. Over time the need for protection against the hazards of the journey grew more intense, whether from opportunist robbers or from some powerful Islamic figures who resented the Christian presence on their lands. The people who went on the large scale and well-armed pilgrimages were usually noblemen and their en tourage, and they were motivated by greed and a sense of adventure, rather than religion. Kings and churches supported the crusades also for political and economic reasons since they distracted people from troubles at home and offered chances to bring back spoils of war. Inventing a horrible enemy encouraged people to become mercenaries and defend their own culture. In an imitation of Islamic ideas, the concept of a â€Å"Holy War† was used to drum up support but in fact, a lot of this was just propaganda with no real basis in fact.

Research Project Proposal (How is text messaging affecting teen Paper

Project Proposal (How is text messaging affecting teen literacy) - Research Paper Example Very small empirical studies have been conducted on the impacts of text-messaging to the teenagers to determine the validity of this concern. Generally text messaging has proved generate negative responses from the teachers, language experts, and also parents. This has ended up being described as continued mugging of technology to written English (Lee, 2002). According to (Plester et al., 2009), there exist a positive effect of the use of text-messaging amongst the children. This has not affected their knowledge and performance on standard measures of academic literacy and achievements. Research done to teenagers and young adults has shown that some negative relationships have been proved to exist text behavior and the use of language skills. However, the use of textese-texting language is associated positively with traditional literacy skills (Kemp, 2010). The study intends to use both primary and secondary sources of gathering data. The researcher will formulate focus groups of 5-10 teenagers in schools to help in gathering the data. Interviews will also be used to determine individual concerns about the use of this change in technology- the interviews will be conducted orally and using open ended questions that will offer information for analysis. There will be the use of statistical application of programs for the analysis of the

New York 16 oz. Soda Ban Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

New York 16 oz. Soda Ban - Research Paper Example As statistics show, Americans ingest approximately 55 billion liters of soda yearly, this add up to about 214 liters or 55 gallons per individual.2 This accounts for a large amount of sugary content consumed by one person considering the composition include high level of fructose corn syrup which not only is the top calories source but also the key cause of obesity. Lancet in his research on consumption of soda and childhood obesity demonstrated that: The 12 year olds who drank soft beverages regularly are usually overweight that those who don’t. Those that consume diet soda are indeed consuming poison, since diet soda compose of artificial sweeteners and not caloric sweeteners. They also do nothing to curb obesity, since diet soda and obesity are related in different ways .3 In the year 2010, USA researchers reported that 25,000 people who died were connected to sugary drinks; the beverages were linked with 133,000 victims died of diabetes, 6,000 victims died of cancer and 44,000 victims died of heart disease.4 Although industries involved in producing soft drinks would react against the Michael Bloomberg’s idea to impose a ban on sodas, with the belief that business is more important than the public’s health, they should however admit that a disease like obesity and diabetes is a key issue that not only affect their customers but the whole society at large. Sugar-sweetened drinks are the leading cause of obesity which awareness simply isn’t enough anymore. When we are serious about fighting obesity then we have to be honest about it and courageous about how to tackle it. We believe it is reasonable and responsible to draw a conclusion.5 People’s freedom of choice is also affected. The society, a vehicle of tax of tax payers, who in return have to perform their duty, the score of it helping to cater for medical costs are liked with diseases like obesity, disability and overweight, not forgetting expenses in their

Critically analyse the role of public service broadcasting in Essay

Critically analyse the role of public service broadcasting in maintaining democracy in one nation-state with which you are familiar. (Best the UK) - Essay Example Most of the public radio and TV stations in the US for instance are licensed as non-commercial broadcasters, although they have some undertones of commercial advertising. This is contrary to the situation in other countries where public broadcasters can transmit commercials unabated (Blumler, 1992) The UK Broadcasting Research Unit in 1985 (quoted in Negrine, 2002) outlined the conditions that have to be fulfilled by public service broadcasting. Firstly, public service broadcasting should have a universal geographical presence accessible to all without any discrimination. Negrine (2002) argues that this is only attainable by setting up member stations across the country or having the broadcaster use sufficient transmitters capable of nationwide broadcasting. Similarly, public service broadcasting should cater for all interests and tastes as is the case of BBC, putting into considerations the plight of minority groups, Negrine further notes that public service broadcasting should demonstrate national identity and community meaning by airing local programmes from within the country other than importing shows from abroad. There is a strong tradition of public service broadcasting in United Kingdom. Study findings indicate that the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was established in 1922 as cited in (Harrison & Woods, 2001). In addition to BBC, Harrison & Woods further note that there are other four more registered channels in the UK namely Channel 4 which is a state-owned commercial public service broadcaster, a Welsh language broadcaster in Wales named S4C and two other commercial analogue broadcasters, ITV and Five which have significant public service obligations that are imposed as part of their licence to broadcast. All the four television broadcasters in UK provide five nationwide analogue terrestrial television channels. Moreover, it is cited that there are two TV channels operated by BBC namely BBC 1 and BBC 2. Further

New York 16 oz. Soda Ban Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

New York 16 oz. Soda Ban - Research Paper Example As statistics show, Americans ingest approximately 55 billion liters of soda yearly, this add up to about 214 liters or 55 gallons per individual.2 This accounts for a large amount of sugary content consumed by one person considering the composition include high level of fructose corn syrup which not only is the top calories source but also the key cause of obesity. Lancet in his research on consumption of soda and childhood obesity demonstrated that: The 12 year olds who drank soft beverages regularly are usually overweight that those who don’t. Those that consume diet soda are indeed consuming poison, since diet soda compose of artificial sweeteners and not caloric sweeteners. They also do nothing to curb obesity, since diet soda and obesity are related in different ways .3 In the year 2010, USA researchers reported that 25,000 people who died were connected to sugary drinks; the beverages were linked with 133,000 victims died of diabetes, 6,000 victims died of cancer and 44,000 victims died of heart disease.4 Although industries involved in producing soft drinks would react against the Michael Bloomberg’s idea to impose a ban on sodas, with the belief that business is more important than the public’s health, they should however admit that a disease like obesity and diabetes is a key issue that not only affect their customers but the whole society at large. Sugar-sweetened drinks are the leading cause of obesity which awareness simply isn’t enough anymore. When we are serious about fighting obesity then we have to be honest about it and courageous about how to tackle it. We believe it is reasonable and responsible to draw a conclusion.5 People’s freedom of choice is also affected. The society, a vehicle of tax of tax payers, who in return have to perform their duty, the score of it helping to cater for medical costs are liked with diseases like obesity, disability and overweight, not forgetting expenses in their

CRIMINAL LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

CRIMINAL LAW - Essay Example Thus in the current scenario unless a case beyond reasonable doubt is made Susan would be considered as innocent. As far as the burden of proof is concerned, such burden lies on the prosecution who in turn has to prove beyond all reasonable doubt including but not limited to satisfaction of the jury of the guilt of the defendant. (Woolmington v. DPP)1 The main elements that required to be proved in criminal law or be specific a criminal offence are actus reus (the action of the accused), mens rea (the requisite intention for the commission of the offence) and the absence of any defence or if any defence is raised it is negated to the satisfaction of the court. (Lord Diplock in R v Miller)2 Another element that needs to be taken into account is that the actus reus and mens rea of the criminal offence that was committed need to coincide, however it is pertinent to mention that such requirement has been interpreted broadly by the courts. (Fagan v. Commissioner of Police3). The actus reu s of an offence is generally satisfied when a positive act is committed. It has often been required that that has been committed must be voluntary, this can be seen from what Lord Denning said that ‘No act is punishable if it is done involuntarily, and an involuntary act in this context...means an act which is done by the muscles without any control by the mind such as spasm, a reflex action or a convulsion; or an act done by a person who is not conscious of what he is doing such as an act done whilst suffering from concussion or whilst sleepwalking...’ (Bratty v Attorney General for Northern Ireland)4 . Thus the act of the defendant must therefore be voluntary and a wilful movement of body. The next element is mens rea which is concerned with the state of mind of the defendant. There had been cases which were decided upon by the courts in which the criteria were set up whereby the mens rea for a criminal act would be established. The cases that were decided upon took i nto account intention, subjective recklessness, objective recklessness, lacuna etc. Mens cannot be said to be wickedness by way of any moral or general sense (Dodman)5 . Furthermore even if it is proved to the court that the motive behind the criminal act was good, it cannot be relied upon as a defence (Chiu-Chang v. R)6 . In respect of mens rea the current situation is that of Woollin7 and R v. G. And this has been reached after considerable refining of the original test for intention. Thus the test for direct intent is the that the defendant had intended a result by committing the particular act; and for oblique intent is that the result may have been that the result was a virtually certain consequence of the act. The actus reus of mens rea was provided by Sir Edward Coke in the seventeenth century whereby he stated that the act is committed if the defendant ‘unlawfully killeth any reasonable creature in rerum natura under the Queen’s peace’. The definition of unlawfully does not include the killing of for example the use of reasonable force for self defence (Re a (Children)8. Clearly it can be seen that due to the car of Susan going straight into the pedestrian would be considered to be an act is unlawful. As far as killeth is concerned that refers to the requirement that the acts of the defendant can be attributed to be a legal cause of death. Clearly

The Autonomic Nervous System

The Autonomic Nervous System The Autonomic Nervous System is a widespread system of nerves that innervates, with the exception of skeletal muscle, nearly every process in the body. This Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a completely unconscious process which is responsible for maintaining homeostasis, as well as having many other functions such as control of digestion. The Autonomic Nervous System was first discovered, and studied by Walter Gaskell (Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick and Hall, 2001) who had his work on the ANS first published in 1916, two years after his death. He discovered that certain physiological effects, such as an increase in heart-rate, could be achieved by stimulating certain nerves branching off from the first few thoracic spinal cord segments. Using this, and other similar studies, he then theorized that each system in the body was innervated with two sets of nerves that had opposing functions (Purves, Augustine et al., 2001). These two sets of nerves we now know to be the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic branches of the Autonomic Nervous System; though recently a third branch has been separated from the others and called the Enteric Nervous System, which is found solely in the gut and the supporting features such as the Pancreas (Barker and Barasi, 1999). Although the ANS plays an unconscious process, it can sometimes be over-ridden by conscious thought; one example of this is in breathing, although breathing happens automatically without any need for purposeful thought, it is possible to take control of your breathing, such as holding your breath, or exhaling forcefully (to inflate a balloon for example). As the Autonomic Nervous System is such an important part of the nervous system, studying it and knowing how it works, and how it is controlled, is also very important; in this essay I am going to talk about the three different branches of the Autonomic Nervous System and their functions and differences, and then explain how they are regulated in the brain. The Sympathetic Nervous System When we are faced with what our bodies consider to be a threat we have to be prepared to, either stand and face the danger (fight), or get ourselves out the situation as quickly as possible (flight); this is the job of the Sympathetic Nervous System. These Fight or Flight responses are designed to give us as much of a physical advantage as possible, such as: making sure enough oxygen is reaching our muscles as possible by increasing heart-rate and dilating blood vessels, saving energy by slowing down lesser-needed processes such as digestion, dilating our pupils so we take in as much light as possible thus improving our vision, and makes our hairs stand on end so we look as big and ferocious as possible; all of these would have given us an edge over any predators we faced. The main nerve-trunks of the Sympathetic Nervous System leave the Central Nervous System from the Thoracic and Lumbar segments of the spinal cord, this is also known as the thoraco-lumbar outflow (Bakewell,1995). The cell bodies of the Sympathetic pre-ganglionic neurones are found in the lateral horn of the spinal cord between segments T1 and L2. Some of these pre-ganglionic fibres of the Sympathetic Nervous System synapse with the post-ganglionic fibres in a long chain, known as the Sympathetic Chain, that runs the length of the spinal cord, although some have a separate ganglion outside this sympathetic chain; from the ganglion, the post-ganglionic neurones then synapse with their target-organ. Post-ganglionic Sympathetic neurones have a very extensive network of dendrites that are innervated by many pre-ganglionic neurones; but there are roughly 10 times as many post-ganglionic sympathetic neurones than pre-ganglionic neurones, this divergence is thought to aid with coordination o f activity between neurones projecting from different segments of the spinal cord (Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000). The Parasympathetic Nervous System The Parasympathetic Nervous System works in opposition to the Sympathetic Nervous System and therefore gives rise to Rest and Digest responses, which act to rebuild the energy stores that were depleted in the previous period of Sympathetic activity. These responses include: slowing down the heart-rate, stimulating digestion, and constricting the pupils. The cell bodies of Parasympathetic Pre-ganglionic neurones are found mostly in the brainstem, with some in the sacral segments of the spinal cord. In the brainstem, these cell bodies are found in the EdingerWestphal nucleus in the midbrain, which is related to the Oculomotor nerve, the Superior and Inferior Salivary nuclei found in the Pons, and related to the Facial nerve and Glossopharyngeal nerve, and in the Dorsal motor Nucleus of the Vagus nerve, in the medulla and the Nucleus Ambiguus. Because of the location of the cell-bodies of the Parasympathetic Nervous System, the it can also be called the Cranio-Sacral outflow (Bakewell, 1995). There are a few contrasts between the Sympathetic Nervous System and the Parasympathetic, apart from their opposing actions; the first and most obvious of these is that, in the sympathetic nervous system, all the preganglionic neurones are very short, most making synapses in a chain that runs very close to the spinal cord, meaning they have much longer post-synaptic neurones (as the pathway is disynaptic), whereas in the parasympathetic nervous system, the pre-ganglionic neurones are much longer and almost reach their target organ before making a synapse with a post-ganglionic neurone. This is an important difference as pre-ganglionic neurones are myelinated and therefore conduct action potentials a lot faster than the unmyelinated post-ganglionic neurones, suggesting the the parasympathetic nervous system works slightly quicker than the sympathetic (Kandel et al. 2000). Another difference is that there is a lot of divergence in the Sympathetic Nervous System, as previously discussed , whereas in the Parasympathetic Nervous System there is a lot less, with the ratio of Pre-Ganglionic Neurones to Postganglionic Neurones being 1:3, although this is highly dependant on the tissue as in some it is nearly a 1:1 ratio. Thirdly, both Pre-Gnaglionic and post-Ganglionic neurones in the Parasympathetic Nervous System use Acetyl Choline (ACh) as their Neurotransmitter, whereas Post-ganglionic neurones in the Sympathetic Nervous System use Noradrenaline; this is important as it has lots of clinical applications for drugs that target specifically the Sympathetic or Parasympathetic Nervous System. The Enteric Nervous System The Enteric Nervous System is a unique branch of the Autonomic Nervous System that is found lining the sides of the digestive system, specifically the oesophagus, stomach, intestines and secretory glands such as the pancreas (Bear, Connors, and Paradiso, 2007). The Enteric Nervous System is responsible for the control of the tension of the walls of the gut and monitoring the ever-chaning chemical balance within the digestive system, these are highly important functions in digestion. The special property of the Enteric Nervous System is that it can act reasonably independently from the rest of the Central Nervous System, leading to it sometimes being referred to as The Little Brain. The cell bodies of the Enteric Nervous System are connected together in two major structures known as plexuses; these are the myenteric plexus and the submucous plexus, these plexuses line the walls of the gut in two separate layers and control peristalsis, internal mucous levels and every other important aspect of the digestive system, including a role in secretion from the pancreas and gall bladder. Though the Enteric Nervous System is a separate function of the Autonomic Nervous System that deals almost solely with the digestive process, it contains as many neurones as the entire spinal cord does, meaning it has a very. Unlike the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic branches of the Autonomic Nervous System which are limited to either 1 or 2 Neurotransmitters, the Enteric Nervous System has been shown to have as many as 20 possible Neurotransmitters, though they have yet to all be proven to act as Neurotransmitters in this system (Gershon, Kirchgessner and Wade, 1994). The Enteric Nervous System has also been shown to play a role in Immune Responses (Hansen, 2003). Higher Control of the Autonomic Nervous System As the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches of the Autonomic Nervous System work, for the most part, in opposition to each other, there must be some higher control coordinating them to work in harmony, and the first step of this is in the Nucleus of the Solitary tract (Kandel et al. 2000); here, the nucleus receives afferent input from the Facial, Glossopharyngeal and Vagal nerve, and firstly sends this information to both the brainstem and the spinal cord, where basic functions of the Autonomic Nervous System are carried out, but more cleverly, the Nucleus of the Solitary Tract also takes in other information and combines it, the Nuclei of the Solitary tract also project to the Periaqueductal grey, which also receives information from the hypothalamus, the periaqueductal grey takes all this information and then projects to the Reticular Formation of the Medulla, where it controls the co-ordination between behavioural activity and the autonomic nervous system, and example of this is that when doing heavy exercise (behavioural), its important your heart-rate increase so your muscles can get a greater oxygen supply from the blood (autonomic). Another important control of the Autonomic Nervous System is in homeostasis, there needs to be cooperation between the baroreceptors or chemoreceptors for example, and the most useful branch of the autonomic nervous system, so hair can stand on end on cold days to preserve heat, for example; this is the job of the hypothalamus (Kandel et al. 2000) as the hypothalamus receives input from pretty much every sensory pathway in the body; a dated study from Swanson and Sawchenko (1983) proved that the Paraventricular Nucleus of the Hypothalamus had descending pathways to the Autonomic Nervous System. As well as direct control over the Autonomic Nervous System, the Hypothalamus also has an indirect influence over it through the use of relays in other parts of the brain (Squire, Berg, Bloom, du Lac, Ghosh and Spitzer, 2008). In conclusion, the Autonomic Nervous System is a diverse and widespread system that innervates nearly every aspect of the body, meaning that a threatening stimulus can elicit a whole range of responses throughout the body, from increasing heart rate to diverting blood from the gut and widening blood vessels, this means that the whole body is very quickly and efficiently prepared to face the danger, and then the entire body can quickly calm down again to replenish resources; and not only this, but because of its connections with the hypothalamus and other higher centres, the Autonomic Nervous System isnt limited to reacting to physical changes, such as body temperature, but it can react to even mental stimuli such as emotions or the anticipation of something. This is important in evolutionary terms, there is little point in reacting to a danger once it has already causes damage so the heightened physical performance needs to come in anticipation of a danger, so that when the danger p resents itself, the fight or flight response is at its strongest. As this is such an important process in the body, many studies have been carried out into it, and continue to be carried out, and much work is being done on diseases of the Autonomic Nervous System, as, obviously, they have such a dramatic effect on the sufferer. References Bakewell, S., (1995) The Autonomic Nervous System. Practical Procedures 5(5) Barker, R., A. and Barasi, S. (1999) Neuroscience at a Glance, Blackwell Publishing Bear, M. F., Connor B. W. and Paradiso, M. A. (2007) Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain, Lippincott Williams Wilkins: a Wolters Kluwer business Gershon M. D., Kirchgessner A.L. and Wade P.R., (1994) Functional anatomy of the enteric nervous system, Springer Berlin Heidelberg Hansen, M. B., (2003) The Enteric Nervous System II : Gastrointestinal functions. Pharmacology Toxicology, 92(6) 249-257 Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H. and Jessell, T. M., (2000) Principles of Neural Science, McGraw-Hill Medical Purves, D., Augustine, G. J., Fitzpatrick, D. and Hall, W. C., (2008) Neuroscience 4th Edition, Sinauer Raj K. Goyal, M.D., and Ikuo Hirano, M.D., (1996) Mechanisms of disease: the enteric nervous system. The New England Journal of Medicine, 334(17) 1106-1115 Squire, L.R., Berg, D., Bloom, F.E., Du Lac, S., Ghosh, A. and Spitzer, N.C., (2008) Fundamental Neuroscience 3rd Edition, Elsevier Swanson, L. W. and Sawchenko, P.E, (1983) Hypothalamic integration: organisation of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei. Ann. Rev. Neuroscience 6 269-324